“Every year, September 10 has been recognized as “World Suicide Prevention Day” since 2003 through the collaboration of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Association for Suicide Prevention (IASP). This special day aims to draw attention to suicide risk, highlight the importance of preventive measures, and raise mental health awareness across societies. Suicide, which claims the lives of approximately one million people worldwide each year, is regarded as a serious issue both on an individual and societal level. In this context, understanding suicide and developing prevention strategies is of vital importance not only for health professionals but also for all segments of society.”
Suicide stands out as one of the most pressing global health concerns today. According to WHO data, around one million people die by suicide annually, and many times more attempt suicide. While suicide rates increased throughout the 20th century, some countries have observed a notable decline in recent years. Suicide is not only an individual loss but also imposes heavy psychosocial burdens on families, communities, and economies.
One striking fact is that the majority of those who die by suicide are men. Yet, research on suicidal behavior has often been framed in terms of “gender differences,” focusing on male-female comparisons, while the relationship between suicide, gender, and particularly masculinity has long been overlooked. Suicide is not shaped solely by biological factors but is also influenced by cultural and social norms.
Most available data comes from industrialized countries, making the global picture limited. For example, in some Asian societies—particularly China—suicide does not predominantly appear as a “male phenomenon” as it does in the West. Similarly, in Brazil, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Hong Kong, Paraguay, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, suicide rates among young women exceed those of young men. This indicates that male suicide behavior varies across societies and cannot be explained by a single framework.
Although men generally attempt suicide less frequently than women, their attempts are more likely to result in death. This paradox is often referred to as the “gender paradox of suicide.” Explanations for this paradox include biological vulnerabilities, hardships in men’s living conditions, and theories of masculinity crisis in modern society. However, the crisis narrative tends to generalize and overlooks crucial factors such as socioeconomic status, age, sexual orientation, living environment, and occupation. For instance, sexual minority men, men living in rural areas, and military personnel are at higher risk of suicide.
Gender, Masculinity, and Suicide
Gender encompasses not only the biological distinction between men and women but also the roles and expectations defined by culture. Gender is less an individual trait than a social position intertwined with power dynamics. According to Judith Butler (2004), gender is “performative”: individuals enact male or female roles according to cultural norms. Thus, there is no single form of masculinity; rather, cultures, historical periods, and social groups construct competing, contradictory, and sometimes opposing masculinities. Hegemonic masculinity represents the dominant and “normalized” form. Yet, the inability of many men to attain these ideals can fuel anxiety, feelings of inadequacy, and an increased risk of suicide.
Research has shown that men who adopt traditional masculinity norms are at higher health risk. One reason is their tendency to suppress emotions and perceive help-seeking as a sign of weakness. Because emotional expression is stigmatized as “feminine,” many men withdraw socially; accumulated stress may then trigger suicidal behavior. Some constructions of masculinity further encourage risk-taking behaviors—such as dangerous activities, alcohol use, or substance abuse—thereby heightening suicide risk. On the other hand, some men embrace emotional openness and help-seeking as forms of “positive masculinity,” which may serve as protective factors against suicide.
Review of Studies on Male Suicide and Masculinity
This article reviews nine studies that examined male suicide through the lens of masculinity. These studies span history, nursing, psychology, public health, and sociology, and cover diverse cultural contexts such as Ghana, Canada, Ireland, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Most employed qualitative methods and discourse analysis.
The first two articles compare male suicides in England and Ghana. Scourfield et al. (2012) emphasize the role of social environments through the concept of “sociological autopsy,” while Adinkrah (2012), analyzing police records in Ghana, reported that more than 90% of suicide attempts were made by men.
Studies on adolescent men highlight how emotional inexpressiveness and bullying increase suicide risk. Cleary (2012) reported that young Irish men concealed their emotions and coped through alcohol use, perceiving suicide as an escape. Oliffe et al. (2012) identified two coping strategies among Canadian men: reconnecting with traditional family roles (functional) and alcohol or drug use (harmful). Alston (2012) found that in rural Australia, the loss of male privilege and stoicism heightened suicide risk.
Conclusion
In conclusion, male suicides are shaped by cross-cultural diversity, varying constructions of masculinity, and social context. Some masculinities foster risk, while others play protective roles. These findings indicate that suicide is not inherent to maleness but is determined by how masculinity is constructed and enacted within specific environments. This perspective is essential for developing culturally and gender-informed prevention strategies.
References
Adinkrah, M. (2012). Better dead than dishonored: Masculinity and male suicidal behavior in contemporary Ghana. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 474–481.
Braswell, H., & Kushner, H. (2012). Suicide, social integration, and masculinity in the U.S. military. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 530–536.
Butler, J. (2004). Undoing gender. New York, NY: Routledge.
Cleary, A. (2005). Death rather than disclosure: Struggling to be a real man. Irish Journal of Sociology, 14(2), 155–176.
Cleary, A. (2012). Suicidal action, emotional expression, and the performance of masculinities. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 498–505.
Courtenay, W. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10), 1385–1401.
Courtenay, W. (2003). Key determinants of the health and well-being of men and boys. International Journal of Men’s Health, 2(1), 1–30.
Oliffe, J. (2005). Constructions of masculinity following prostatectomy-induced impotence. Social Science & Medicine, 60(10), 2249–2259.
Oliffe, J. (2006). Embodied masculinity and androgen deprivation therapy. Sociology of Health & Illness, 28(4), 410–432.
Oliffe, J., Ogrodniczuk, J., Bottorff, J., Johnson, J., & Hoyak, K. (2012). “You feel like you can’t live anymore”: suicide from the perspectives of Canadian men who experience depression. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 506–514.
Scourfield, J., Fincham, B., Langer, S., & Shiner, M. (2012). Sociological autopsy: an integrated approach to the study of suicide in men. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 466–473.